OCCURENCE
Habitat: Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland,Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane,Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens,Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas
This species is primarily a species of tropical rainforest, primarily adapted to primary forest of low to medium altitude (Haugum and Low 1979, Braby 2016); however, both sexes may be found in drier eucalypt open-forest, cultivated areas and secondary forest (Haugum and Low 1979, Braby 2016). However, at least in drier eucalypt forest, breeding is unlikely to occur (Braby 2000). Most populations are found in marginal forest areas, along coastlands and sometimes in shrubby or secondary forest (Haugum and Low 1979). In Papua New Guinea, the species is found to exclusively occur in marginal and open secondary forest areas, in association with its food plants, mainly Aristolochia tagala (Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999). Areas where the species has been found include field/forest interfaces, areas of forest regrowth, plantation edges (e.g. oil palm and coconut) and beach vegetation above the high-tide level (Parsons 1999). In Australia, all subspecies of this species occur in lowland areas (M. Braby pers. comm. April 2018).
Females tend to oviposit a maximum of five eggs per food plant and - unlike some of the rarer species of Ornithoptera - may lay as many as fifty eggs in total (Straatman 1969); oviposition may generally take place in the outer fringes of forest, secondary forest and brushland, but has also been observed in gardens where local population levels may be high (Haugum and Low 1979). Eggs are laid singly on the underside of the leaves (Braby 2000), although in some observations, females oviposit not on the food plant but on the stems and branches of trees and shrubs in the vicinity (Straatman 1969). The number of eggs laid depends on the sizes of the available food plants (Straatman 1969). Eggs undergo high levels of mortality (between 80-100%) due to the parasitic wasps Ooencyrtus spp. and are also preyed upon by ants (e.g. Oecophylla smaagdina ; Straatman 1969, Parsons 1999). The ovipositing behaviour itself may also cause some of this early mortality (Straatman 1969). Eggs generally hatch after a duration of 10-14 days, with larval life-stage duration of 25-30 days (Parsons 1999). Multiple broods have been reported from a number of places, namely in Papua New Guinea where breeding takes place almost all year round; fewer broods may occur in more southern parts of its range (Haugum and Low 1979).
The species is generally thought to be adapted to a range of diverse habitats due to it being oligophagous on a number of Aristolochia and Pararistolochia vines (although at localised levels, subspecies may be mainly monophagous; Haugum and Low 1979). The species' main food plant is reported as Aristolochia tagala , which is utilised by most, if not all of its subspecies, although many subspecies utilise a number of different closely related Aristolochia spp. and Pararistolochia spp. as food plants, depending on the area occupied and the type of plant communities within these areas. Some examples are A. linnemannii for subspecies caelestis on Rossel Island; P. momandul for subspecies bornemanni on New Britain; Aristolochia and Pararistolochia spp. for subspecies poseidon on mainland Papua New Guinea, especially in regions of competition with Troides oblongomaculatus (Parsons 1999); in Australia, larval food plants are A. acuminata and, only occasionally, A. chalmersii (Braby 2016). This list of food plants is unlikely to be exhaustive.
Larval predators include birds, toads, ants, and wasps (Straatman 1970, Parsons 1999), although predation on larva is rarely observed (Parsons 1999). Adults have been seen entangled in webs of the giant orb-web weaving spider Nephila maculata (Matsuka 2001). Subspecies pronomus has been reported to be cannibalistic if larvae are crowded together on a small plant (Haugum and Low 1979). The larval stage at Cape York has been reported to take 23 days (recorded in November) and the pupal stage 26 days (recorded in December; Waterhouse 1932).
Adults are considered to be generalist feeders (Erhardt 1992) and are often observed to utilise nectar of introduced ornamental plants, such as Hibiscus rosa , Euphorbia pulcherrina (Poinsettia), Icora chinensis and Poinciana spp. and Carica papaya (Parsons 1999). In terms of natural nectar sources, adult have been found to feed on native Ipomea hederifolia , wild ginger and Rhododendron (Parsons 1999). Other nectaring plants are Lantana camara , Mussaenda , and Papaya (Haugum and Low 1979); adults of the subspecies caelestis are often spotted feeding on Lantana growing on rainforest margins (Braby 2000). Subspecies poseidon for example has been observed feeding on Hibiscus rosa sinensis , Euphorbia pulcherrima and ornamental shrubs and trees found considerable distances away from the habitat of the main host plant (Szent-Ivany 1971). Adults have a gliding or sailing flight (Braby 2000). Males usually fly higher up in the canopy though also lower down to search for flowers and females; females tend to fly at lower levels than males (Parsons 1999, Braby 2000). In northern Queensland, adults occur throughout the year, with an individual's life cycle normally completed within 2-3 months (Braby 2000).
Life history is known for some subspecies, with very little information for others. For example, little is known of the habitats, behaviour and life stages of subspecies bornemanni . During an expedition in 1961-62, it was found in small patches of remaining primary forest among prolific secondary forests and cultivated land. It was also observed that the subspecies may be multivoltine (Haugum and Low 1979), . Adults were most numerous at the end of July and into the rainy season; although other peaks have been observed to coincide with June to August and December to February (Haugum and Low 1979). Similarly, very little is known about the ecology of subspecies caelestis , although it is known to feed on a species of Aristolochia similar to A. tagala (Haugum and Low 1979). Behaviour and life stages of subspecies miokensis are also little known; it is believed to use A. megalophylla as a food plant (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies admiralitatis was recorded to fly throughout the year (Ebner 1971).
For other subspecies, more information is available. Subspecies urvillianus is among the longest lived subspecies of the species (three months) (Haugum and Low 1979). It occurs not uncommonly along sandy beaches and in coastal estuaries, along rivers, and in secondary forests where adults are abundant near Aristolochia tagala food plants (Straatman 1969, Tennent 2002). However, other Aristolochia and Pararistolochia food plants may also be used on some islands (Straatman 1969, Tennent 2002). Females may oviposit on food plants in secondary growth and in recent undergrowth of coconut plantations (Straatman 1969); as a result, butterflies may appear in more open habitat more than is usual for the species. Adults of both sexes are philopatric and attracted to flowers of various species, such as Hibiscus, Allamanda , Cerbera odollam etc , and may be seen visiting these in rural settlements (Braby 2000, Tennent 2002). Flight is very similar to that of O. victoriae and the two species have been observed to fly together in the same habitat, as well as using the same host plant (Tennent 2002). Adults are generally free from predators although some individuals may fall prey to predator attacks (though they are thought to be at least distasteful to predators if not poisonous). Larval mortality is caused by drowning in heavy dew or rain (when very young) and attacks by spiders, ants, wasps, frogs, lizards. Large larvae, prepupae and freshly formed pupae are sometimes killed by the green tree ant Oecophylla smaragdina ; Vespa species (most likely V. tropica or V. affinis ) have been observed to attack large larvae, stinging them and chewing on paralysed bodies; mature larvae are also preyed on by toads.
Adult flight in subspecies pronomus has been observed between October and May, though with pronounced peaks in sightings in October to December and February to May (Cape York; Haugum and Low 1979) and December to January in the Iron Range (Haugum and Low 1979). Other authors have stated that the species flies throughout the year, yet is more abundant in summer and autumn months (McCubbin 1971). Oviposition occurs on native Aristolochia species. At Cape York, young larva reached maturity fourteen days after hatching, and pupal duration was 26 days; if crowded together, larger larvae will sometimes attack smaller ones and eat them (Braby 2000). It is thought that all Australian subspecies complete several generations per year
(IUCN 2020)
There are few data on the population status and trends of individual subspecies. There is some information in past accounts, however, although these rarely take into account natural seasonal fluctuations in relative abundance, and/or year to year variation in abundance. For example, Haugum and Low (1979) make the following remarks: the nominate subspecies priamus was suggested to be common in nature, however, it is only known from relatively few specimens (at the time thought to be due to the remote area where the species occurs). Subspecies poseidon was considered locally abundant in the past, although again with little data available (Haugum and Low 1979) and is now, like the other Australian subspecies macalpinei and pronomus, considered to be uncommon and local within its Australian range (Braby 2016). Subspecies demophanes was reported to be numerous and locally abundant, with very high population density in Trobriand (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies bornemanni was considered generally widespread and locally abundant on New Britain in the past, especially in suitable localities along sea shores, with females not an infrequent sight in coconut plantations close to the shore; however status of the species in 1979 was unknown, though it was considered not to be uncommon (Haugum and Low 1979).
Other subspecies were even less well known in terms of their population status: subspecies boisduvali , for example, was considered to be fairly rare, although its status was generally unknown (Haugum and Low 1979). The habitats of subspecies miokensis were densely populated by humans (Haugum and Low 1979) and numbers appeared depleted due to leveling of ground for development of 'food gardens'; the subspecies was already suggested for butterfly farming in the late 1970s, to reverse trends of decline. With its status in 1979 widely unknown, it was nevertheless considered to be 'not rare in nature' (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies caelestis was considered localised and generally uncommon to fairly rare, occurring in small populations at altitudes of around 100 m, but only rarely at lower elevations or on the seashore; additionally, adults were reported as restricted to mountainous parts of the island of Louisiade (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies arruana , for which most populations occur near the coast, was considered probably rare (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies admiralitatis occurs on Manus Island which is mountainous and heavily wooded. Here, the subspecies was described as widespread but localised by Haugum and Low (1979); but while Ebner (1971) recorded it as common and flying throughout the year, it was also observed that at some times of the year, it could be scarce. It was considered that secondary islands around and similar to Manus may support populations of this birdwing (Haugum and Low 1979). The previously proposed subspecies teucrus on Biak (here treated as part of subspecies poseidon ) was described from a series of 135 males and 110 females, suggesting that it must have been fairly abundant at the time of collection (1914; Haugum and Low 1979).
No current quantitative information exists on the population status and trend of this species.Range: This is a widespread species which occurs in Indonesia (Ambon, Seram, Waigeo, Misool, Kai Island, Aru Island, Tanimbar Island and Irian Jaya), Papua New Guinea and adjacent offshore islands, Bismarck Archipelago, New Britain, Trobriand Island, D'Entrecasteaux Island, Woodlark Island., Louisiade Archipelago, Bougainville, Torres Strait Islands and Solomon Islands (excluding San Cristobal) (Straatman 1969, Common and Waterhouse 1972, Haugum and Low 1979, Racheli 1980, Collins and Morris 1985, Parsons 1999, Braby 2000, Matsuka 2001, Tennent 2002) and extends south as far as the northeast coast of Australia (Queensland) (Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001, Tennent 2002). In New Guinea, the species is widely distributed across the mainland and occurs on nearly every island (Parsons 1999). Records further south to the Clarence River, New South Wales, belong to Ornithoptera richmondia .
Despite its wide distribution, some subspecies are more restricted in range. Subspecies admiralitatis is found on the Admiralty Islands (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), especially on Manus, Los Negros and Lou Islands (Parsons 1999); subspecies arruana is restricted to Aru Island (Great Aru, including the two southern parts 'Kobe' and Trangan, and Little Aru; Haugum and Low 1979, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), and possibly Gomo Gomo Island (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies boisduvali occurs on Woodlark (Muyua) Island (Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001). Subspecies bornemanni is found on New Britain Island, Vitu Island and Matupi Island (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001); records from Mioko (Schmid 1973) are now considered to be subspecies miokensis . As a result, subspecies miokensis occurs on Mioko, Ulu and Duke of York Island in the Duke of York Islands group (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), and although occurrence on Matupi Island (in New Britain) and New Ireland have also been proposed by Matsuka (2001), this may be a confusion with other subspecies (e.g. bornemanni ) and both localities have been listed by Matsuka (2001) as rare or possibly extinct due to a lack of recent occurrence records. Subspecies caelestis occurs on the Louisiade Archipelago (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Common and Waterhouse 1972, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), especially on the group's Misima, Tagula and Yela islands (D'Abrera 1971), but also on Liag, Larama, Nimoa, Hemenahei, and Moturina (in the Calvados island chain) (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies demophanes is distributed on the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (e.g. Fergusson), the Engineer group, Trobriand Island (e.g. Kiriwina Island) (Haugum and Low 1979, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001). Subspecies hecuba is found on Tayandu Islands, Aru Islands and Kai Islands of Maluku, Indonesia (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), and it was proposed the subspecies also occurs on the Walim islands and maybe Taom and Kur (Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies priamus is restricted to Seram Island (where it occurs in coastal areas as well as the interior, e.g. Manusela range; Haugum and Low 1979), Ambon Island, Saparua Island and smaller islands in the area (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Matsuka 2001), and possibly Haruku Island (Haugum and Low 1979, Schaeffler 2001), but is apparently absent from the western islands of Boano, Kelang and Manipa, and from Buru Island (Haugum and Low 1979).
Other subspecies are more widespread. Subspecies urvillianus is found on the islands of East Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, from the Bismarck Archipelago (New Ireland, though possibly absent from Dyaul; Tabar; New Hanover (Lavongai); St Matthias; Lihir; Feni; maybe Tanga (Maledok)) to Malaita and Guadalcanal (e.g., Nissan, Buka and Bougainville and throughout the Solomons (Shortlands (Alu Islands), Treasury, Choiseul, Vella Lavella, Ranongga Kolombangara, New Georgia, Rendova, Santa Isabel, the Russells, Guadalcanal, Savo, Florida, Malaita, Ulawa, Vona Vona; Haugum and Low 1979, Racheli 1980, Tennent 2002), apart from San Cristobal and satellites, Bellona and Rennell (D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Common and Waterhouse 1972, Parsons 1999, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001, Tennent 2002). It possibly also occurs on the islands of the Plante, Stetten and Byron Straits.
Subspecies poseidon is another more widespread subspecies, occurring across New Guinea and outlying islands (especially Yule, Kairuru, Mushu, Manam, Karkar, Bagabag, Long, Umboi, D'Entrecasteaux (Goodenough, Fergusson and perhaps Normanby), Trobriands; D'Abrera 1971, Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Braby 2000), Kai and Aru Islands (Common and Waterhouse 1972), and the Torres Strait Islands (e.g., Darnley, Murray and Banks Islands: Common and Waterhouse 1972, Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999, Braby 2000, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001). According to D'Abrera (1971) it occurs on Waigeo, Salawati and Misool, however, these westernmost records may now be attributed to new subspecies described since D'Abrera's work in 1971. There are no records available from lowlands of S. Prince Frederik Henrik Island and adjacent lowlands of the southern districts of the mainland in the past (Haugum and Low 1979). Additional records come from islands of Gebe, Gag and possibly Kofiau in the extreme northwest of its distribution, all islands in the Geelvink Bay, islands of Vitiaz and Dampier Straits (Karkar, Bagbag, Long and Rooke Islands), Sideia, Basilaki and the Engineer group (Haugum and Low 1979).
Subspecies macalpinei and pronomus are narrow range endemics of Australia: subspecies macalpinei is found from the Iron Range to the McIllwraith Range near Coen and Stewart River near Port Stewart on Cape York Peninsula, QLD (Moulds 1974, Monteith & Hancock 1977, Matsuka 2001, Braby 2000, Schaeffler 2001). Subspecies pronomus is found on outlying islands of the Torres Strait (e.g. Thursday Island) and on the mainland at Bamaga and Somerset on the tip of the Cape York Peninsula (D'Abrera 1971, Common and Waterhouse 1972, Common and Waterhouse 1981, Braby 2000, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001); Haugum and Low (1979) restrict the distribution to no further south than the Jardine River, where it exists in scattered populations. The headwaters of the Jardine River are also likely to feature the main breeding population of this subspecies (Braby 2000).
The number of subspecies considered for this species varies between authors, so that some variation in the above is to be expected (with additional localities for other subspecies on Gebe Island, Biak Island, Manipa Island and Yapen Island (D'Abrera 1971, Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001), and additional records for the species, which may pertain to new subspecies, have also been recorded (e.g. Kasiui Island, Kur Island, Watubela Island (Matsuka 2001, Schaeffler 2001).
Altitudinally, the species is found primarily between 0-1,000 m in Papua New Guinea (Matsuka 2001), with a maximum recorded altitude of 1,600 m (the species has been recorded in flight at these altitudes, but few early stage specimen have been found; Haugum and Low 1979, Parsons 1999). In Irian Jaya, the species was reported at 2,000 m in the Arfak Mountains, though it is considered rare in the area (Parsons, 1999). It occurs in the Kobowre Mountains (Weyland Range) (Matsuka 2001). Some subspecies are typical of low to medium altitudes, such as subspecies poseidon which is typically found in lowland coastal regions, although some populations do exist in surrounding hills and highlands (limit of 1,400 m in Papua; Haugum and Low 1979). Subspecies urvillianus ascends the hills and lower mountains to around 600-700 m; however, populations are generally most numerous at altitudes from 0-450 m (Tennent 2002).
Based on known localities, the estimated extent of occurrence for this species exceeds 5 million km?. From available point data, the estimated area of occupancy is at least 1,208 km?, and likely larger. However, some of the subspecies are likely to be far more restricted, as discussed above.
(IUCN 2020)
Occurrence and observation maps
Map of LifeGBIF
i-Naturalist
References
- Braby, M.F. 2000. Butterflies of Australia. Their identification, biology and distribution. CSIRO Publishing, Canberra.
- Braby, M.F. 2016. The complete field guide to butterflies of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South, Victoria, Australia.
- Collins, N.M. and Morris, M.G. 1985. Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
- Common, I.F.B. and Waterhouse, D.F. 1972. Butterflies of Australia. Angus and Robertson, Sydney.
- Common, I.F.B. and Waterhouse, G.A. 1981. Butterflies of Australia. Angus & Robertson, Sydney.
- D'Abrera, B. 1971. Butterflies of the Australian Region. Lansdowne Press, Melbourne.
- Ebner, J.A. 1971. Some notes on the Papilionidae of Manus Island, New Guinea. Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 25: 73-80.
- Erhardt, A. 1992. Preferences and non-preferences for nectar constituents in Ornithoptera priamus poseidon ( Lepidoptera, Papilionidae). Oecologia 90(4): 581-585.
- Haugum, J. and Low, A.M. 1979. A Monograph of the Birdwing Butterflies. Scandinavian Science Press, Klampenborg.
- IUCN. 2020. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2020-3. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed: 10 December 2020).
- Matsuka, H. 2001. Natural History of Birdwing Butterflies. Matsuka Shuppan, Tokyo.
- McCubbin, C. 1971. Australian butterflies. Thomas Nelson (Australia) Ltd., Melbourne.
- Parsons, M. 1999. The butterflies of Papua New Guinea: their systematics and biology. Academic Press., London.
- Racheli, T. 1980. A list of Papilionidae (Lepidoptera) of the Solomon Islands, with notes on their geographical distribution. Australian Entomological Magazine 7(4): 45-59.
- Schaeffler, O. 2001. Papilionidae VI: Ornithoptera. In: Bauer, E. and Frankenbach, T. (eds), Butterflies of the World, Goecke & Evers, Keltern.
- Straatman, R. 1969. Notes on the biology and hostpant associations of Ornithoptera priamus urvilleanus and O. victoriae (Papilionidae). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 23: 69-76.
- Tennent, J. 2002. Butterflies of the Solomon Islands: Systematics and Biogeography. Storm Entomological Publications, Derehan, Norfolk, England.
- Waterhouse, G.A. 1932. What butterfly is that? A guide to the butterflies of Australia. Angus & Robertson, Sydney.